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The cultural history of
Pennsylvania is widely recognized throughout North America and our educational
textbooks. The cultural foundation on which this state was erected transcends
into modern times, affecting governmental decisions, Pennsylvanian natives, and
generally our way of life as a whole. The history of said state goes back
further than the arrival of European settlers, taking our inquiring minds to the
land concealed in the Laurentide Ice Sheet. The Pleistocene Epoch was the
beginning to a process of developing technologies, flourishing cultural lineage,
and agricultural adaptation. Learning the components of Pennsylvania’s pre-history,
we can begin to understand how these elements affect our lives today.
The
environmental geography of Pennsylvania is one of various conditions. The top
level, as well as deep segments of Pennsylvania soil monoliths, show great
strain and wear from the Laurentide glacier; courtesy of the Quaternary Period
2.6 million years ago. This particular ice sheet migrated down from northern
Canada, simply forming a two-lobed shape around northern Pennsylvania,
affecting the Northwestern and Northeastern regions. The geological record
shows how these regions were physically affected in different ways by the
Laurentide glacier (Sevon et al.; pg.17). The Northwestern area is one of flat
and smooth land. The vertical stratigraphy of Northeastern Pennsylvania was
rigid, home to a series of valleys, and not as smooth as its counterpart. As
the ice sheet moves across the Northeastern, frozen material scratches against
the rubble in layers beneath it, leaving transportation marks for us to exhume.
This is essential to the environmental geography as it can show the direction
in glacial movement as well as where it may have stopped. Over the next few
centuries as the glacier began to melt, it would leave networks of channels and
streams cut into major rivers. Within the bedrock of these bodies of water are
glacial till and deposits. Some of the topography of mountainous plateaus was
subject to depressions that were created by glacial scour; the result leading
to swampy rivers filled with peat (Sevon et al.; pg. 25). The act of this
glacial deposition would soon influence the settlements of Paleo-Indians.
The
Paleo-Indians were hunter-gatherers that traversed across the Bering Land
Bridge nearly 10,000-40,000 years ago. In search of stable climate and food
resources, the Paleo-Indians would migrate to varying regions across North
America. By way of subsistence and shelter, nomadic groups found their way to
the region of Pennsylvania. As the last Ice Age was nearing its end, the
Paleo-Indians needed to facilitate encampments in rockshelters. Vegetational
distribution and biogeographical changes were occurring due to the period of
dramatic shift in climate. Harvesting nuts and vegetables happened near
streams, valleys, and rivers. The Paleo-Indians also subsisted on deer and elk.
Fear of exploiting resources was not known as population density was still low.
However, as stress on resources from the growing population increased, foraging
and hunting needed to occur in new terrain. This luxury quickly declined as
territories were being filled to their capacities (Fagan; pg. 109).
Essentially, the Paleo-Indians needed to make use of their relationships with
neighboring Native Americans and search for new resources. This is evident in
the archaeological record as we have excavated projectile points, showing the
development of Native American technology. Each arrowhead can put the pieces
together on subsistence changes and cultural integration. For comparison
purposes, we can study the projectile points of the Late Paleo-Indian versus
the projectile points of the Archaic Period.
Approaching the
Archaic Period 8,000-2,000 B.C., the climate began to warm. Exploiting
mastodons and mammoths was no longer a deed. The Native Americans were now exploiting
smaller resources more commonly; such as chestnut, acorns, seeds, fruit
(“Pennsylvania Archaeology” 2015). The need for projectile points similar to
that of the Clovis point was no longer a necessity. As you can see in Figure 1,
the Clovis point is a rather large object. The Paleo-Indians needed to create a
piece of weaponry that was suitable for hunting large mammals such as
mastodons. During the Archaic Period, projectile points of that size would
essentially go unused. In Figure 2, you can see the physical differences of an
arrowhead for this time period. Each point was becoming distinct and used for
certain hunting practices. This arrowhead is about 2inches in length versus a
6-7inch Clovis point. It has an acute distal end, random bifacial percussion
flaking, and a bifurcate base. The bifurcate base indicates the introduction of
new technology: the bow and arrow. One of the more common features of the
Archaic Period technology is the significant change in materials. The Clovis
Period Indians used obsidian, chert, or mammoth bone. The raw materials of the Archaic
Period were most frequently quartz, jasper, and flint. The toolkits essential
for subsisting in Pennsylvania will vary from one another. For example, the
Laurentian Archaic toolkit would carry different technology than that of the
Piedmont Archaic, simply due to the location and need for exploiting different
resources. The technological developments of the Archaic Period had a lot to do
with the climate change, as well as social organization from population increase.
In order to obtain an abundant amount of food supply, groups were establishing
settlements along valleys with vegetation. The Native Americans used the
advantage of growing band territories to exploit further terrain in abundance.
As the weather warmed and seasonality was evident, these bands would create
encampments specifically for summer season and winter season. Summer semi-settlements
remained near bodies of water for fishing, such as the Delaware River. Winter
semi-settlements remained near deciduous forests, suitable for hunting deer,
elk, and turkey. Hunting during the winter season is when the bow and arrow
came into play. It proved suitable for these conditions more than the atlatl.
However, remains of this technology on the archaeological record are not so
easy to find. They were extremely difficult to preserve as the breaking down of
wood happened quicker and easier, as opposed to stone arrowheads (“Pennsylvania
Archaeology” 2015). With these several components, it was not uncommon for the
Archaic Indians to cross the paths of neighboring villages. In fact, a few
artifacts that were found in Northeast Pennsylvania are presumed to belong to
the western Mississippi Valley. As a result, many Native American women of Pennsylvania
would marry into neighboring territories. This would help to expand territorial
bases and unite exchanging of goods. The artifacts associated to this
archaeological record continue to show us the ever-developing agricultural
culture, societal organization, and technology of pre-history Pennsylvania.
Transitioning
from the Late Archaic Period to the Early and Middle Woodland Periods was one
of great technological development. The stress for resources was caused by the
growing population of communities. Foods that were essential to archaic
subsistence carried into the Woodland Period. However, the cultivation of seeds
was becoming prominent. Seeds and nuts were used to create an assortment of
meals. To do so, it would take less energy to have the technology that could
open the seed and expose the ‘fruit’ inside. Therefore, it was imperative that
the Woodland toolkit consisted of various stone tools. Steatite tools
originated in Lancaster County, located on the Southeast of Pennsylvania. This
particular material was found in neighboring regions of Ohio, New York, New
Jersey, and other states along the eastern coast (“Pennsylvania Archaeology”
2015). The archaeological record of these artifacts demonstrate a developed
trading network operated throughout the Eastern Woodlands, and how integral it
was for communities to continue developing technology, assimilating to the
change in resources. Exchange of goods can infer unification of bands, territories,
and evolution of cultures. Though it is evidenced that the eastern regions of
Pennsylvania influenced surrounding areas, it is extremely rare and uncommon to
find steatite artifacts in western Pennsylvania. It is difficult to conclude
why, as there is no archaeological record to theorize on. In addition, egalitarian
social organizations were no longer suitable for exploiting Pennsylvania
terrain. A structured society was required as a new adaptive strategy element.
The expansion of band development led to alliances as well as war between
communities. This shows on the archaeological record as Mississippian Valley
war clubs were exhumed in southeastern Pennsylvania. Refer to Figure 3.
Following the Transitional Period
of Pennsylvania, we emerge into the Woodland Period, 1000 BC. Unlike its
predecessor, climatic developments appeared, including ceremonial and burial
activities. The trading network that channeled throughout the entire east coast
demonstrates marine shells, shark teeth, and turtle shells from Southern states
such as Florida. Minerals like copper and silver were traded from the Great
Lakes region, and volcanic glass from western states (“Pennsylvania
Archaeology” 2015). Water was the prime element to trading further south.
Advancing from horseback to canoe was quintessential to the advancements of the
Native Americans (Treuer et al; pg. 16). The exchange of goods existed beyond
regional borders and assisted in developing the adaptation of ceremonies. Such
an evolution to culture was deduced from the vast trading network of the Adena
peoples. Mound structures along the Ohio Valley have been exhumed and exhibit
religious developments influenced by Mississippian culture and the Hopewell
Exchange System. Mounds built for individuals of importance contained artifacts
not relative to that person’s location. This was symbolic of the relationships
built between one community and another. Their goods ranged from copper, to
beads, to pottery. Upon excavation of such mounds, archaeologists can theorize
that social stratification was developing at an increasing rate as well as
religious ideologies. The climate of Pennsylvania during the Woodland Period
was much like how it is today. Seasons were predictable; hot summers, and cold
winters. Settlements were more permanent and communities based their
foundations around the resource they were exploiting. Each group would report
back with their foraged goods and disperse them throughout the community. The
development of pottery was an essential tool to the Woodland Period. It helped
to store goods, make ceremonial offerings, as well as boil seeds. Communities
from neighboring regions (Ohio River Valley, Susquehanna Valley) came together
in order to benefit from abundant subsistence and to maintain burial mounds
that channeled through the valleys. One such homestead community was that of
the Lenni Lenape (translates to ‘Men of Men’); originating from the Delaware
River Valley.
The Lenni Lenape have
come to be called by several different names; Delaware Tribe of Oklahoma,
Original People, Delaware Indians, and Grandfathers. Their tribe is considered
one of the oldest to exist in pre-history North America, prior to European
contact and for their reputation as peacekeepers (Treuer; pg. 166). The tribe settled along New York, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, and Delaware. This area of land was called Lenapehoking.
Archaeological record of the Lenape tribe is most difficult to establish or
excavate. This is largely due to European settlements and the Lenape being
pushed to the margins. The Delaware Indians were an accumulation of three
tribal clans depending on their region; wolf, turtle, turkey. Those that
resided in the northern half of Lenapehoking spoke Munsee and those that
resided in the south spoke Unami. Both are different dialects of the Algonquian
language (“Lenape Lifeways” 2014). Social stratification was prevalent.
Economic and technological advancements had progressed enormously by the 15th
century. The Lenape chose their chief depending on his wisdom, honesty,
generosity, and ability to make wise decisions. Before making peace or
declaring war, the chief would spoke tobacco in his pipe. Native Americans saw
tobacco as an offering to the spirits.
Herbalists and healers were given
equal ranking to that of the chief and sweat lodges were essential to ritual
cleansing. The Lenape would use these to sweat the evil out of their bodies. Regardless
of gender and age, everyone had a job to fulfill. Younger children were taught
the chores they would need to carry-on when they grew up. Men took care of
hunting and woodworking while woman did housekeeping and harvesting. The Lenape
diet consisted of pigeon, ducks, turkey, cats, fish, and vegetables like maize.
In fact, Pennsylvania is one of the top fifteen corn distributors in North
American to this day. Taking advantage of technology learned from surrounding
communities, the Lenape women were able to produce certain tools if the raw
materials were available. Pottery was formed from clay obtained by the local
rivers. Families would settle in wigwams and sometimes extended families would
reside with others. After the communities would exploit the natural resources
of that area, they would pick up camp and travel elsewhere. Hunters would camp
temporarily in order to subsist in abundance. They would not return to the
community until the desired quota was reached (“Lenape Lifeways” 2014). The
natives developed musical instruments, games, and fashion. Life became more
about defining their culture and pastimes rather than subsisting to live.
The affects of the European
settlement, starting in the mid-15th century, are still felt in
Pennsylvania today. Trade was an initial occupation that soon led to spread of
diseases and warfare. The decline of the Lenape population induced conflict
between the Native Americans and the European settlers. Some Indian groups
assimilated to a Christian lifestyle while the rest were either killed or pushed
westward (“Explore PA” 2011). Unfortunately, the Delaware Indians relied
heavily on European goods and needed to maintain social organizations with
different colonial powers. The Purchase of 1768 stipulated that the Iroquois
and Lenape give up their Pennsylvania land in exchange for western land. In
addition, they would be given trade goods (furs and metals) and money. The
Iroquois agreed and dispersed from Pennsylvania. However, the Lenape were
reluctant and this ultimately led to multiple treaty attempts over the
following thirty years. The Lenape disbanded and blended in with cultures out
west or moved north. Any alliance
formed between the Indians and European settlers ended in demobilization and
decimated the native population. Written documentation shows the contradictory
attitudes of European settlers on the natives (Sugrue; pg. 5). This event
fortifies the dramatic reorganization of settlements and the disintegration of
multi-family dwellings (Fagan; pg. 514). The coercion of settlement and thievery
broke the ties between the Native Americans and European government officials indefinitely
(Carpenter, pg. 491). Unbeknownst to the Indians, the lands given out west were
soon to be reservations. The promises proposed by the colonial powers fell
through and the population of the Native Americans, specifically Lenape,
declined exponentially (“The Indians of Pennsylvania” 2011). Recognition of
their peril has driven modern society to a new level of appreciation and
preservation. Many a museum in Northeastern Pennsylvania are dedicated to the
Lenape Indians as well as schools. Though Lenape Indians residing in
Pennsylvania are not recognized by the reservations in Oklahoma, they remain in
the homelands today; trying to maintain traditional economy and culture.
Works Cited
Fagan,
B. M. (2005). Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent. 4th
Edition. New York: Thames & Hudson. Print.
"Pennsylvania
Archaeology." Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. 10
Sept. 2015. Web.
"Lenape
Lifeways." Welcome to Lenape Lifeways. 15 July 2014. Web.
"ExplorePAHistory.com
- Stories from PA History." ExplorePAHistory.com - Stories from PA
History. 2011. Web.
Carpenter,
Roger M. "Review." The American Historical Review 113.2
(2008). <http://www.jstor.org/stable/30222897>.
Sevon,
W. D., Gary M. Fleeger, and Vincent C. Shepps. "Pennsylvania and the Ice
Age." Pennsylania Geological Survey 4th ser. (1999).
Treuer,
Anton, and Herman J. Viola. Indian Nations of North America. Washington,
D.C.: National Geographic, 2010. Print.
Sugrue,
Thomas J. "The Peopling and Depeopling of Early Pennsylvania: Indians and
Colonists 1680-1720." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and
Biography 116.1 (1992): 3-31.
Figure 1: Clovis
point dating 13,000 years ago. Bifacial percussion flaking, acute distal end,
fine serrations, and semi-lobed based.
Figure 2:
Archaic point dating 8000-2000 BC. Acute distal end, bifacial percussion
flaking, bifurcate base with side notches. Valued at $25 USD.
Figure 3: Archaic Mississippian Valley war club with beaded sheath (presumed
to be added centuries later). Made of
bannerstone and wood. Excavated near Lancaster county, Pennsylvania. Perfect
condition. Valued at $800-$1200 USD.
Figure 4: Woodland Period
marine shell necklace. Used for social stratification or religious ceremonies.
Valued at $325 USD.
Figure 5: Catlinite
Tobacco Pipe bowl. Early 1800’s. Southeast Pennsylvania. Valued at $475 USD.
Figure 6: Pueblo
pottery. Traded from Mexican region. Early 1800’s. Southeast Pennsylvania.
Valued at $9,000 USD.
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