Roles of The Gospels

 

Good morning, readers. One thing I aspire to utilize my blog for is raising awareness of the affects from crossing cultures. Primarily, I research Indigenous studies but I also find it necessary to reference other cultures and their religions, as well as traditions. This allows growing minds to understand the many facets that make up a society.

During the era of settlement to the America's, Christianity shaped Indigenous cultures; not so much as a resurgence but it provided a different perspective on life and purpose for being on mother Earth. I grew up Roman Catholic and I currently practice no religion, as far as organized religion. However, I cannot help but try to break barriers when it comes to religions. Many are cousins of one another, after all. It is time we as human beings educate ourselves and respect the traditions of other societies, whether we believe in them or not. At the very least, the characteristics and requirements are interesting to learn. Enjoy this research paper I wrote on the Gospels.

        In Galilee, around 30 C.E., the prophet Jesus lived amongst his Jewish peers, teaching them about the Kingdom of Heaven and the pious edicts established by God, which were scriptures annotated by Jesus’s apostles: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Such works are known as the Gospels, highlighting moral obligations to achieve salvation. As Jesus taught these commandments throughout the land of Judea, which was under Roman rule, Christianity served as a challenge to the principles of the pagan Roman Empire, and it also developed animosity with original traditions of the Jewish sects. Following Jesus’s death in 33 A.D., disciples continued to preach his doctrine despite the Christian community enduring maltreatment from the Roman Empire. Patrons of Christianity increased due to the Gospel’s pronouncement of equality and social justice, and appealed to developing Greek philosophies. These transformations ultimately influenced Roman officials to establish Christian tolerance by 312 A.D., allowing Christianity to flourish as an international religion. 

            In the Gospel of Matthew, the basic principles of Christianity were introduced by Jesus at his Sermon on the Mount, which addressed the eight “Beatitudes”, or supreme blessings. “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven…Blessed are they who mourn, for they will be comforted…Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy...” The eight Beatitudes illustrate the trials and tribulations humans will endure, and the rewards given from God for pursuing their moral obligations. The main component of Matthew’s gospel is practicing humility, where a person without material possessions is more open to the word of God and appreciative of His blessings.

The Gospel of Mark is second of the four synoptic gospels, which claims Jesus is the Messiah, son of God, who was appointed by the Father to suffer for sinners and restore humankind. (Mark 1:17). This inference is supported by nearly twenty encounters of Jesus performing miracles on the sick and needy. The final chapters disclose the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, further aiding his purpose of servant hood—a theme epitomized throughout the Gospels. Even though the doctrine of Jesus challenged Roman ideologies by refusing to worship Roman gods, Mark claimed that Jesus did not seek political power. This did not prevent Romans from arresting Jesus under the accusation of treason, where he was taken to Pontius Pilatus for sentencing. Pilatus sentenced Jesus to death by crucifixion, a standard forfeiture for citizens guilty of insubordination. After his death, Jesus appeared to those that rebuked their faith and said to them, “Go into all the world and preach the gospel to all creation. Whoever believes and is baptized will be saved, but whoever does not believe will be condemned.” After he had spoken, he was taken up into heaven and sat at the right hand of God (Mark 16:14 – 16:20).

The Gospel of Luke is the third synoptic gospel that illustrates the teachings of Jesus chronologically, and accurately portrays the accounts that took place. “…I too decided to write an orderly account for you, Theophilus, so that you may know the certainty of the things you have been taught.” (Luke 1:3) This sequential order allows followers to comprehend the advancement of achievements and works of Jesus Christ. The Gospels of Matthew and Mark are not chronological and this technique displays the accounts of Jesus as a discussion or story rather than a biography.

The Gospel of John is not a synoptic gospel as it takes a theological approach to elucidate that Jesus was the Messiah. “The work of God is this: to believe in the one he has sent.” (John 6:29) “I am the bread of life. Whoever comes to me will never go hungry, and whoever believes in me will never be thirsty.” (John 6:35) He depicts Jesus as being a theological entity that we must obey, as well as the divine bridge between Earth and the Kingdom of Heaven. In contrast, the synoptic Gospels portray Jesus as the prophet of God who teaches moral requirements for salvation. These literary works remain crucial elements within the Christian world as they illustrate Christian life declared by Jesus Christ.

Moral requirements outlined in the Gospels are related to the Ten Commandments received by Moses on Mount Sinai, which are indicated in the Old Testament Book of Exodus. The Ten Commandments spoke primarily of evils we need to avoid— “thou shall not”—while the teachings of Jesus declare our duties as followers of God. “Worship the Lord your God, and serve him only.” (Matthew 4:10) God is considered the ecclesiastical entity that transcends above all of reality. Nonetheless, there is ‘Fulfillment of the Law’, in which we follow earthly decree until Heaven and Earth disappear, and the Kingdom of Heaven is the only institution left to judge mankind. Christian laity are commanded to emulate God’s humility by ‘Loving thy Enemies’ and ‘Giving to the Needy,’ which are critical to obtaining salvation. We are all children of the Father in Heaven, and so we must pray for the sinners. It is essential to not boast righteous actions as God will see what was done in secret and will reward through redemption.

The ministry of Jesus did not initially flourish under the label of ‘Christianity.’ In fact, it developed from Jewish partisan movements: Pharisee, Sadducee, and Essene. The Gospels detailed the preaching and works of Jesus, but they were also dictating the emerging consciousness of a progressing Christian society. This development reshaped the original ideas of Judaism and how they follow the teachings of moral law outlined in the Old Testament. One such obligation was animal sacrifice, which acted as a means for forgiveness of sins. From a Christian perspective, the crucifixion of Jesus Christ was the ultimate sacrifice for the sins of humanity. The Pharisee’s only believed in the Oral Law given to Moses on Mount Sinai, as well as the Torah. Similar to Christianity, they believed in punishment from God and rewards for the righteous, while the Sadducees opposed Oral Law and practiced actual interpretation from the Torah, focusing primarily on the Ten Commandments. The Essenes opposed both the Pharisee and Sadducee, parting ways with Jerusalem and embracing a monastic life of celibacy and strict dietary traditions. Christianity embraced the word of God, restoring godly standards and rewarding followers, while the Jewish sects broke these commands to keep tradition (Matthew: 15:3).

Following the death of Jesus, Christianity endured severe scrutiny by the Roman government. During the reign of Claudius in 49 A.D., antagonism between Jewish and non-Jewish communities increased as the Jews continued seeking privileges, such as access to Greek-only institutions, and Claudius responded by expelling Jews from Rome. In 64 A.D., Rome suffered a fire that lasted for six days, destroying over a third of the city, and citizens blamed Emperor Nero for this carnage. In order to avert these claims, Nero used the Christian community as a scapegoat, blaming them for the destruction. He arrested members of the sect, declaring retribution and much of the Christian laity was sentenced to death by extreme, humiliating torture.

The theme of goodness, equality, and social justice in the Gospels appeased Roman citizens that were suffering from a declining political and economic institution, further provoking the Christian persecution. Neo-Platonism, a developing philosophical order founded by Greek philosopher Plotinus, expressed interest in Christianity as the doctrinal values were similar to Plato’s ‘Form of Good’ and Neo-Platonism’s declaration of a supreme source. In Neo-Platonism, the soul is a product of the divine and to unify the soul with the divine source after death, mankind must obey selfless acts similar to the obligations illustrated in the Gospels. Plato’s ‘Form of Good’ explains the universe illuminated by the Good, and this theory is evident in Plato’s Allegory of the Cave. Similar to Christianity, the light outside of the cave personifies God, and therefore the light is good, so the liberator acts like an apostle, converting mankind in the cave to live in the light, as this transition presents humans with salvation of the soul. In the Gospels, Jesus proclaims mankind must follow the ‘form of good’ by preaching his word to all of creation. The belief of salvation in these different factions, aided the expansion of Christianity throughout the Roman world.

The path of martyrdom followed Christian history throughout time but reached a moment of civility in 261 A.D., when Emperor Gallienus constituted a tolerance to Christianity, allowing the laity to practice their religion without persecution. It is Gallienus’s admiration for Greek art and philosophy that he established this edict, extending an olive branch in hopes to strengthen the suffering Roman Empire. However, neighboring invaders persecuted the Christian community and in 303 A.D., Emperor Diocletian appointed the continuation of Christian expulsion. The purpose of the Diocletian Persecution is to continue a pagan society by terminating Christians, and Diocletian saw this plan through by burning scriptural books, as well as dislodging churches to the ground while his son, Galerius, ordered the imprisonment of all Christians. These Christian persecutions are known as the Era of Martyrs, and by 312 A.D. Emperor Constantine established the Edict of Milan, declaring religious tolerance for Christian and non-Christian citizens. The edict ceaselessly transformed the entire Roman perspective of Christianity and all of its factions today.

Christianity relies on the Gospels for preaching the works of Jesus Christ and moral obligations mankind must pursue in order to obtain salvation, such as caring for the needy, loving the enemy, and worshiping only God. The doctrines were developed from the original ideas of the Jewish community, reestablishing the standards God desires for man to follow. The similarity of beliefs to the Jewish community caused the Roman Empire to persecute followers of the new Christian faith, as they posed a threat to their crippling society. Even though Christianity suffered generations of martyrdom, it flourished throughout the Mediterranean, appealing to Greek philosophical orders and shortly to Roman officials. The legalization to practice Christianity, as well as the promotion of social equality and salvation in the Gospels, further aided the expansion of this new religious sect for years to come.

Indigenous History

Good afternoon, readers. I wanted to share with you a research paper I wrote in regards to the indigenous peoples of North America. I am from Pennsylvania so you will see some statements relate to my location, but as a whole the sequence of events is similar across the land. This was written as an extra credit assignment for one of my upper-course Anthropology classes. In addition, I created this with my curator internship in mind. As you've seen in my previous posts, the Native American exhibit at my museum is opening October 5th. There will be over 5,000 Native American artifacts as well as paintings done by yours truly. It is going to be a wonderful event that will signify the importance of the indigenous cultures. Everything I create pertaining to this topic is fueled by my passion of giving back to my culture. We are still oppressed by teaching future generations the false history of our nation. Please read this article and take a look at the exhibit website. I hope you are interested in both, making plans to attend the event too. ---I also apologize for the formatting this will create when I copy and paste my article. Blogspot doesn't transfer documents nicely.

Click Here For: Night at the Museum Exhibit Information

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Above all else, please sign the petition I have linked above. If you have not heard about the Dakota Pipeline happenstance, research the cause and effects. I greatly appreciate anyone who signs.

 

      The cultural history of Pennsylvania is widely recognized throughout North America and our educational textbooks. The cultural foundation on which this state was erected transcends into modern times, affecting governmental decisions, Pennsylvanian natives, and generally our way of life as a whole. The history of said state goes back further than the arrival of European settlers, taking our inquiring minds to the land concealed in the Laurentide Ice Sheet. The Pleistocene Epoch was the beginning to a process of developing technologies, flourishing cultural lineage, and agricultural adaptation. Learning the components of Pennsylvania’s pre-history, we can begin to understand how these elements affect our lives today.

            The environmental geography of Pennsylvania is one of various conditions. The top level, as well as deep segments of Pennsylvania soil monoliths, show great strain and wear from the Laurentide glacier; courtesy of the Quaternary Period 2.6 million years ago. This particular ice sheet migrated down from northern Canada, simply forming a two-lobed shape around northern Pennsylvania, affecting the Northwestern and Northeastern regions. The geological record shows how these regions were physically affected in different ways by the Laurentide glacier (Sevon et al.; pg.17). The Northwestern area is one of flat and smooth land. The vertical stratigraphy of Northeastern Pennsylvania was rigid, home to a series of valleys, and not as smooth as its counterpart. As the ice sheet moves across the Northeastern, frozen material scratches against the rubble in layers beneath it, leaving transportation marks for us to exhume. This is essential to the environmental geography as it can show the direction in glacial movement as well as where it may have stopped. Over the next few centuries as the glacier began to melt, it would leave networks of channels and streams cut into major rivers. Within the bedrock of these bodies of water are glacial till and deposits. Some of the topography of mountainous plateaus was subject to depressions that were created by glacial scour; the result leading to swampy rivers filled with peat (Sevon et al.; pg. 25). The act of this glacial deposition would soon influence the settlements of Paleo-Indians.

            The Paleo-Indians were hunter-gatherers that traversed across the Bering Land Bridge nearly 10,000-40,000 years ago. In search of stable climate and food resources, the Paleo-Indians would migrate to varying regions across North America. By way of subsistence and shelter, nomadic groups found their way to the region of Pennsylvania. As the last Ice Age was nearing its end, the Paleo-Indians needed to facilitate encampments in rockshelters. Vegetational distribution and biogeographical changes were occurring due to the period of dramatic shift in climate. Harvesting nuts and vegetables happened near streams, valleys, and rivers. The Paleo-Indians also subsisted on deer and elk. Fear of exploiting resources was not known as population density was still low. However, as stress on resources from the growing population increased, foraging and hunting needed to occur in new terrain. This luxury quickly declined as territories were being filled to their capacities (Fagan; pg. 109). Essentially, the Paleo-Indians needed to make use of their relationships with neighboring Native Americans and search for new resources. This is evident in the archaeological record as we have excavated projectile points, showing the development of Native American technology. Each arrowhead can put the pieces together on subsistence changes and cultural integration. For comparison purposes, we can study the projectile points of the Late Paleo-Indian versus the projectile points of the Archaic Period.

Approaching the Archaic Period 8,000-2,000 B.C., the climate began to warm. Exploiting mastodons and mammoths was no longer a deed. The Native Americans were now exploiting smaller resources more commonly; such as chestnut, acorns, seeds, fruit (“Pennsylvania Archaeology” 2015). The need for projectile points similar to that of the Clovis point was no longer a necessity. As you can see in Figure 1, the Clovis point is a rather large object. The Paleo-Indians needed to create a piece of weaponry that was suitable for hunting large mammals such as mastodons. During the Archaic Period, projectile points of that size would essentially go unused. In Figure 2, you can see the physical differences of an arrowhead for this time period. Each point was becoming distinct and used for certain hunting practices. This arrowhead is about 2inches in length versus a 6-7inch Clovis point. It has an acute distal end, random bifacial percussion flaking, and a bifurcate base. The bifurcate base indicates the introduction of new technology: the bow and arrow. One of the more common features of the Archaic Period technology is the significant change in materials. The Clovis Period Indians used obsidian, chert, or mammoth bone. The raw materials of the Archaic Period were most frequently quartz, jasper, and flint. The toolkits essential for subsisting in Pennsylvania will vary from one another. For example, the Laurentian Archaic toolkit would carry different technology than that of the Piedmont Archaic, simply due to the location and need for exploiting different resources. The technological developments of the Archaic Period had a lot to do with the climate change, as well as social organization from population increase. In order to obtain an abundant amount of food supply, groups were establishing settlements along valleys with vegetation. The Native Americans used the advantage of growing band territories to exploit further terrain in abundance. As the weather warmed and seasonality was evident, these bands would create encampments specifically for summer season and winter season. Summer semi-settlements remained near bodies of water for fishing, such as the Delaware River. Winter semi-settlements remained near deciduous forests, suitable for hunting deer, elk, and turkey. Hunting during the winter season is when the bow and arrow came into play. It proved suitable for these conditions more than the atlatl. However, remains of this technology on the archaeological record are not so easy to find. They were extremely difficult to preserve as the breaking down of wood happened quicker and easier, as opposed to stone arrowheads (“Pennsylvania Archaeology” 2015). With these several components, it was not uncommon for the Archaic Indians to cross the paths of neighboring villages. In fact, a few artifacts that were found in Northeast Pennsylvania are presumed to belong to the western Mississippi Valley. As a result, many Native American women of Pennsylvania would marry into neighboring territories. This would help to expand territorial bases and unite exchanging of goods. The artifacts associated to this archaeological record continue to show us the ever-developing agricultural culture, societal organization, and technology of pre-history Pennsylvania.

            Transitioning from the Late Archaic Period to the Early and Middle Woodland Periods was one of great technological development. The stress for resources was caused by the growing population of communities. Foods that were essential to archaic subsistence carried into the Woodland Period. However, the cultivation of seeds was becoming prominent. Seeds and nuts were used to create an assortment of meals. To do so, it would take less energy to have the technology that could open the seed and expose the ‘fruit’ inside. Therefore, it was imperative that the Woodland toolkit consisted of various stone tools. Steatite tools originated in Lancaster County, located on the Southeast of Pennsylvania. This particular material was found in neighboring regions of Ohio, New York, New Jersey, and other states along the eastern coast (“Pennsylvania Archaeology” 2015). The archaeological record of these artifacts demonstrate a developed trading network operated throughout the Eastern Woodlands, and how integral it was for communities to continue developing technology, assimilating to the change in resources. Exchange of goods can infer unification of bands, territories, and evolution of cultures. Though it is evidenced that the eastern regions of Pennsylvania influenced surrounding areas, it is extremely rare and uncommon to find steatite artifacts in western Pennsylvania. It is difficult to conclude why, as there is no archaeological record to theorize on. In addition, egalitarian social organizations were no longer suitable for exploiting Pennsylvania terrain. A structured society was required as a new adaptive strategy element. The expansion of band development led to alliances as well as war between communities. This shows on the archaeological record as Mississippian Valley war clubs were exhumed in southeastern Pennsylvania. Refer to Figure 3.

Following the Transitional Period of Pennsylvania, we emerge into the Woodland Period, 1000 BC. Unlike its predecessor, climatic developments appeared, including ceremonial and burial activities. The trading network that channeled throughout the entire east coast demonstrates marine shells, shark teeth, and turtle shells from Southern states such as Florida. Minerals like copper and silver were traded from the Great Lakes region, and volcanic glass from western states (“Pennsylvania Archaeology” 2015). Water was the prime element to trading further south. Advancing from horseback to canoe was quintessential to the advancements of the Native Americans (Treuer et al; pg. 16). The exchange of goods existed beyond regional borders and assisted in developing the adaptation of ceremonies. Such an evolution to culture was deduced from the vast trading network of the Adena peoples. Mound structures along the Ohio Valley have been exhumed and exhibit religious developments influenced by Mississippian culture and the Hopewell Exchange System. Mounds built for individuals of importance contained artifacts not relative to that person’s location. This was symbolic of the relationships built between one community and another. Their goods ranged from copper, to beads, to pottery. Upon excavation of such mounds, archaeologists can theorize that social stratification was developing at an increasing rate as well as religious ideologies. The climate of Pennsylvania during the Woodland Period was much like how it is today. Seasons were predictable; hot summers, and cold winters. Settlements were more permanent and communities based their foundations around the resource they were exploiting. Each group would report back with their foraged goods and disperse them throughout the community. The development of pottery was an essential tool to the Woodland Period. It helped to store goods, make ceremonial offerings, as well as boil seeds. Communities from neighboring regions (Ohio River Valley, Susquehanna Valley) came together in order to benefit from abundant subsistence and to maintain burial mounds that channeled through the valleys. One such homestead community was that of the Lenni Lenape (translates to ‘Men of Men’); originating from the Delaware River Valley.

The Lenni Lenape have come to be called by several different names; Delaware Tribe of Oklahoma, Original People, Delaware Indians, and Grandfathers. Their tribe is considered one of the oldest to exist in pre-history North America, prior to European contact and for their reputation as peacekeepers (Treuer; pg. 166).  The tribe settled along New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. This area of land was called Lenapehoking. Archaeological record of the Lenape tribe is most difficult to establish or excavate. This is largely due to European settlements and the Lenape being pushed to the margins. The Delaware Indians were an accumulation of three tribal clans depending on their region; wolf, turtle, turkey. Those that resided in the northern half of Lenapehoking spoke Munsee and those that resided in the south spoke Unami. Both are different dialects of the Algonquian language (“Lenape Lifeways” 2014). Social stratification was prevalent. Economic and technological advancements had progressed enormously by the 15^th century. The Lenape chose their chief depending on his wisdom, honesty, generosity, and ability to make wise decisions. Before making peace or declaring war, the chief would spoke tobacco in his pipe. Native Americans saw tobacco as an offering to the spirits.

Herbalists and healers were given equal ranking to that of the chief and sweat lodges were essential to ritual cleansing. The Lenape would use these to sweat the evil out of their bodies. Regardless of gender and age, everyone had a job to fulfill. Younger children were taught the chores they would need to carry-on when they grew up. Men took care of hunting and woodworking while woman did housekeeping and harvesting. The Lenape diet consisted of pigeon, ducks, turkey, cats, fish, and vegetables like maize. In fact, Pennsylvania is one of the top fifteen corn distributors in North American to this day. Taking advantage of technology learned from surrounding communities, the Lenape women were able to produce certain tools if the raw materials were available. Pottery was formed from clay obtained by the local rivers. Families would settle in wigwams and sometimes extended families would reside with others. After the communities would exploit the natural resources of that area, they would pick up camp and travel elsewhere. Hunters would camp temporarily in order to subsist in abundance. They would not return to the community until the desired quota was reached (“Lenape Lifeways” 2014). The natives developed musical instruments, games, and fashion. Life became more about defining their culture and pastimes rather than subsisting to live.

The affects of the European settlement, starting in the mid-15^th century, are still felt in Pennsylvania today. Trade was an initial occupation that soon led to spread of diseases and warfare. The decline of the Lenape population induced conflict between the Native Americans and the European settlers. Some Indian groups assimilated to a Christian lifestyle while the rest were either killed or pushed westward (“Explore PA” 2011). Unfortunately, the Delaware Indians relied heavily on European goods and needed to maintain social organizations with different colonial powers. The Purchase of 1768 stipulated that the Iroquois and Lenape give up their Pennsylvania land in exchange for western land. In addition, they would be given trade goods (furs and metals) and money. The Iroquois agreed and dispersed from Pennsylvania. However, the Lenape were reluctant and this ultimately led to multiple treaty attempts over the following thirty years. The Lenape disbanded and blended in with cultures out west or moved north. Any alliance formed between the Indians and European settlers ended in demobilization and decimated the native population. Written documentation shows the contradictory attitudes of European settlers on the natives (Sugrue; pg. 5). This event fortifies the dramatic reorganization of settlements and the disintegration of multi-family dwellings (Fagan; pg. 514). The coercion of settlement and thievery broke the ties between the Native Americans and European government officials indefinitely (Carpenter, pg. 491). Unbeknownst to the Indians, the lands given out west were soon to be reservations. The promises proposed by the colonial powers fell through and the population of the Native Americans, specifically Lenape, declined exponentially (“The Indians of Pennsylvania” 2011). Recognition of their peril has driven modern society to a new level of appreciation and preservation. Many a museum in Northeastern Pennsylvania are dedicated to the Lenape Indians as well as schools. Though Lenape Indians residing in Pennsylvania are not recognized by the reservations in Oklahoma, they remain in the homelands today; trying to maintain traditional economy and culture.

Works Cited

Fagan, B. M. (2005). Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent. 4^th Edition. New York: Thames & Hudson. Print.

 

"Pennsylvania Archaeology." Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. 10 Sept. 2015. Web.

"Lenape Lifeways." Welcome to Lenape Lifeways. 15 July 2014. Web.

 

"ExplorePAHistory.com - Stories from PA History." ExplorePAHistory.com - Stories from PA History. 2011. Web.

 

Carpenter, Roger M. "Review." The American Historical Review 113.2 (2008). <http://www.jstor.org/stable/30222897>.

Sevon, W. D., Gary M. Fleeger, and Vincent C. Shepps. "Pennsylvania and the Ice Age." Pennsylania Geological Survey 4th ser. (1999).

 

Treuer, Anton, and Herman J. Viola. Indian Nations of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2010. Print.

 

Sugrue, Thomas J. "The Peopling and Depeopling of Early Pennsylvania: Indians and Colonists 1680-1720." The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 116.1 (1992): 3-31.

Figure 1: ^{Clovis point dating 13,000 years ago. Bifacial percussion flaking, acute distal end, fine serrations, and semi-lobed based.}

Figure 2: ^{Archaic point dating 8000-2000 BC. Acute distal end, bifacial percussion flaking, bifurcate base with side notches. Valued at $25 USD.}

^{Figure 3: Archaic Mississippian Valley war club with beaded sheath (presumed to be added centuries later). Made of bannerstone and wood. Excavated near Lancaster county, Pennsylvania. Perfect condition. Valued at $800-$1200 USD.}

Figure 4: Woodland Period marine shell necklace. Used for social stratification or religious ceremonies. Valued at $325 USD.

Figure 5: Catlinite Tobacco Pipe bowl. Early 1800’s. ^{Southeast Pennsylvania. Valued at $475 USD.}

Figure 6: Pueblo pottery. Traded from Mexican region. Early 1800’s. Southeast Pennsylvania. Valued at $9,000 USD.



How to Study for College Exams

Taking school seriously was a difficult thing for me to do when I was younger. This showed in my grades and they continued to slip until I dropped out my senior year. About a year after that, I went back to High School and graduated. During that year I spent much time thinking about my future and what I could do to make it successful. I knew instantly that I had to graduate high school and go to college. It was time I took my education more seriously and tried to not let personal situations prevent me from bettering my self. Knowing what college and what major to study is key. However, knowing how to stay on top of your school work and never succumb to procrastination is integral to your college years. 

 One of the main reasons students fail exams is simply because they do not study properly. Taking notes is vital and attending class only will not be helpful unless you consistently look over your material. I’m a visual-learner. What this means is that I prefer to write notes and look at them over and over. It is difficult for me to pay attention if I am listening to a professor speaking. With that being said, perhaps my methods are better suited for fellow visual-learners but anyone could use them to their advantage. 
 
Here are a few pointers on how to study for college exams:

   

         If you do not have a planner, I highly recommend you invest in one. Scheduling your days will help you to not stress over due dates or when you have to work next. Plan accordingly and use your extra time to study. Granted, every college student deserves to spend some free time having fun but the majority should be spent studying. What works for me is leaving the studying for the last part of my day. That does not mean I schedule my study time after dinner. It means getting little errands done all at once in the morning, and using the rest of the day to go over my material. Having no commitment for the rest of the day means you will not look at the clock so frequently. Studying before you go to work or on lunch breaks is not a bad idea either. This helps to refresh what you’ve previously looked over. 

        You’re probably thinking, “Who has time to color code their notes?!” And you’re right. This is a step you save for when you’ve scheduled to study for long periods of time. It’s also a great way to organize detailed material. When you are listening to your professor, you’re going to jot down phrases, not sentences. Things will hardly make sense to you and this is why you must review handouts and textbooks. If you’re a visual-learner like myself, you want to see the details on paper. So, what I do is take the notes that are phrases and match them to the material we learned that day. For example, your notes after class may look like this:

A.   Why War

1.     Religious conflictions

2.     Nationalism

When you are ready to color code, this will help you to understand the topic and the valid points. Exams usually consist of essay questions so though this will take longer, it will be helpful to know the thesis of the points instead of what they are specifically. Now your notes will look like this:

A.   Why War

1.     Religious Conflictions; Societies throughout time have held great dissociation from nation to nation due to a variance in religious ideologies.

2.     Nationalism; Nations tend to favor the integrity of their own societies, causing an increase in selfish desire for worldly power while letting weaker nations to expire.

You see what I have done is color coded the question, “Why War?” The first point is religious conflictions, followed with a thesis. The second point is nationalism, followed with a thesis. I know, I know. It seems like common sense. But in reality, a lot of students I have encountered do not do this and are left trying to decipher their own notes. Professors are going to want a thesis on exams and valid points to support it. Though it may not be the answer they’re looking for, if you provide a good argument there is a bigger change they will give you credit.

 


Do NOT be scared of asking your professor for help. If their instructions 
 are confusing, ask for clarification. If your professor offers a study guide with questions that will be on the exam, do not try to seek answers but look for guidance. One thing that has helped me in this situation is countering your confusion with what you think could be the answer. The professor may then hint if your ideas are correct or if you should look at the question from a different perspective. If your professor does not give study guides, ask them what you should focus on studying that will benefit you on the exam. Communicating with your professor will show that you are serious about the class. They are more helpful than you think.

      

        Trying to study in a cluttered and loud room is not ideal. Either find a library you can study in or ask your dorm partner to leave your room. Sunlight will also help with focusing your mind. It goes without saying that studying in a dark room is ridiculous. However, I have noticed that being exposed to fluorescent lighting for certain lengths of time causes headaches. Trying to find light that mimics the sun will help above all. If you’re able to listen to music (preferably instrumental), this will help to relax your mind and body. I am a huge advocate of ASMR. If you are not aware of what ASMR is, please Google it. These videos are made with the idea that they will help you to focus better and reduce anxiety. 

 

        After you’ve overwhelmed yourself with trying to remember everything, reward yourself! This will give you motivation to start and finish your studying on time. If there is a piece of clothing you want, a book, a new movie, save it for when you are done with your exams. You will feel that much more proud of yourself for having stuck to a schedule, and studying for those long, boring exams without becoming distracted.

Last but not least, remember that college is going to be an important, exciting, and momentous time of your life. It is vital that you push yourself to do well to ensure that your future will be prosperous.

Curating Blog #1 | Native American Artifacts

This week I started my project with the Antique Automobile Museum in Hershey, PA. One of their main contributors passed away and unknowingly was a huge collector of Native American artifacts (other than antique cars). It is my job for the next few months to curate over 4,000 artifacts. That means cleaning, preserving, cataloging, and appraising. Once all of these pieces are organized we will begin creating our exhibit to house the artifacts. How the AACA is going to incorporate artifacts with antique cars is by way of a Route 66 idea. It is extremely important that myself, as well as others, preserve these pieces to the best of our abilities and to ensure that we do not offend the Native American peoples. For myself, this is the perfect way to help preserve my heritage and to pay respects to my ancestors. 

To begin, handling ancient artifacts is a meticulous thing. All pieces need to be treated equally. You have to make sure that the materials in which you use to handle these pieces are either made from organic materials or are not processed in any way. A HUGE mistake is touching a natural object with a chemical object. This is what happened when the contributors 'helpers' packaged his artifacts. They were all covered in green bubble wrap, packaging tape, or peanuts. Over time this will eat away at what is left of the artifacts. Unfortunately, this is how a lot of pieces are ruined. People are not taking the proper care or are misinformed on how to care for them. Even touching with your bare hands can cause risk though not as much as processed materials. 

This is an extremely tedious process and will be quite cumbersome. 

Here is my favorite piece so far:

Native American Pueblo Pottery

What we have here is American Indian Pueblo Pottery; most notably from Southwestern America due to Spaniard arrival over 400 years ago. These vessels were used mostly for utilitarian purposes and not so much for artistic appreciation. Therefore, pottery is one of the hardest artifacts to study but as you can see, we have a beautiful piece luckily still in tact. With the force of Christianity, Indians were banned from using pottery in spiritualistic manners. That being said, they were only allowed to use pottery for laborious tasks; cooking, storing goods, etc.  

I will be adding more artifacts to new posts once I am done conducting my research. I will also be providing value guide information and updates on my research.  

Voices and Beginnings of Islam

Ignorance will never be bliss. Ignorance is avoidable. Change will never occur if ignorance is encouraged. Humans have the opportunity and blessing to teach themselves factual evidence of everyday subjects and many refuse to accept this ability.

Religion is a combative topic nowadays and ignorance fueled with fear is the reason why. One of the common themes or mottoes with religion is essentially, "Treat others the way you would want to be treated." At the beginning of the Afro-Eurasian congregations being established, thousands of years ago, spreading positivism was the main pursuit. Regardless of race, we stem from the same belief and beginning of rationalizing morals.

Not only have I experienced ignorance towards my own race (I will discuss in future posts) but I am ashamed at how ignorance is projected onto the Afro-Eurasian society as a whole.

Throughout various courses I've had to study the Islamic region and all various religions that correlate with Islam. Here is a draft I've written up that will benefit those who are trying to improve their knowledge and rid their being of ignorance. Should you fall into that category, we are prouder than you know and thank you for taking the time to become a better person. The world needs more people like you.

The spiritualism and general do-good of the Afro-Eurasian religions is incredibly enlightening and beautiful (some of my favorites to read about). In my years of studying, whether for my own pleasure or schoolwork, I have hardly come across a religion that was based on violence and hate. Something so pure is easily manipulated by those who hold the upper hand in society. Stop giving recognition to the evil-doers of any religion/race/gender. Start focusing on those that spread positive change and international cultural cooperation.

The Voices of Islam

           

            The establishment of new religions in third-wave civilizations induced expansion across the Afro-Eurasian region. These religions would have denominations within themselves, expressing their forms and processes in a multitude of ways including separation, as documented in literary works written by their scholars and believers. The Islamic faith was created by a historical founder, or rather a prophet, Muhammed—spreading the teachings of Allah, the Islamic God. Doctrinal differences caused a flourish in Islamic denominations, which included the newly found Sunni and Shia; beliefs and the practice of adoration towards Allah were varied to that of Muhammad's words. Different understandings and opposing perspectives produced an intricate and complex Islamic faith. 

            The prophet Muhammed was a reflective and intuitive man that often meditated in arid mountains, escaping the inequalities of Mecca. It was during meditation that Muhammed was visited by angel Gabriel, who spoke of Allah's message, and commissioned Muhammed to transcribe his teachings in Arab language. This scripture became known as the Quran, or defined as 'recitation'. The testaments that were revealed to Muhammed came in times of crisis for the Islamic community. The Quran soon became the sacred scripture of the Islamic peoples and is respected as God's very words; revolutionary and divine. To the Muslim, Allah was their only God and creator of the world. “You alone do we worship, and You alone do we ask for help. He is Allah, the One. He is Allah, the eternal...The One beyond compare”, as stated in the Quran. The scriptures condemned the social practices of Mecca, including the dishonesty towards the poor. “You shall do good unto your parents and kinsfolk, and the orphans,and the poor; and you shall speak unto all people in a kindly way...and you shall spend in charity”. Granting freedom to slaves was a possibility if you sensed any good in them. If freed, you must share the wealth of God's words with them. The Hadith, or voice of Muhammed, illustrates in contrast that slaves who serve their masters honestly, as well as their God, will only have a double recompense, or good pay back. The treatment of married couples, however, varied from that of treatment to slaves.

            The equality between man and woman was purely spiritual. However, the social relationship of genders was unequal. Men are illustrated as protectors of women—who must remain obedient to their male counterparts. According to the Quran, should women fall 'out of line', their husbands are allowed to lightly beat them but are not permitted to treat them harshly. The voice of Muhammed, Hadith, has discoursed that to look at a woman is forbidden and to also treat them kindly as they were made of man's rib. Throughout the establishment of the Islamic faith, Muslims became attentive towards laws and correct behavior. The law, or Sharia, was designed to create the good society within which the Islamic community could find rightful expression. The Sharia discusses the role of gender and marriage, as well. “It is not permitted for a man to look at a strange woman. He is not allowed to touch her face or hands even if he is free from lust, whether he be young or old”. Men have the freedom to marry as many as four women, free or enslaved. Again, women remain obedient to their husbands and serve him as they would a God. A denomination named the Sufis did not lay parallel to that of the law and regulations. Therefore, despite the best efforts to obtain rightful expression in the Islamic community, there were Muslims who took a different approach to adoration.

            Known as the mystics of Islam, the Sufis preferred to experience Allah, or the Divine Presence through an intoxicating and personal happening. The Sufis are organized in bands of brotherhood, sometimes acting as missionaries of Islam. Their direct and personal experience of spiritual seeking brought a different way of thinking to the Islamic faith. During these missionaries, the Sufis taught non-Muslims their practice of whirling dervishes; dancing and using music as a way of spiritual enlightenment. Partaking in whirling dervishes and practicing the Sufi way, was not limited to men. Women were held to a greater role than that stated by the Quran and Hadith; equal members of Sufi orders. The songs that were sung by the Sufi often portrayed divine beauty in a feminine form. Woman teachers of the Sufi orders were called mullahs, same as their male counterparts. Much like the Quran and Hadith, poetry and literature remained a supreme expression of the esoteric measure of the Islamic religious pursuit. Rumi, an exemplar of the Sufi denomination, had written a poem expressing his views on the belief of God; he searched for God but he was nowhere physically. God was intangible and unsearchable. “...I looked into my own heart and there I saw Him; He was nowhere else”. In order for your search to be successful, you must open your heart to let God in, and you will then begin to delight yourself.

            The Sufi spirituality never became conflicting adaptations of Islam and therefore became a major way of thinking in the Islamic faith. Despite agreeing with the Quran and laws, Muslims must know God in their hearts, and through direct personal encounters with Allah. The Quran is parallel to that if the Hadith, unlike the Sufi orders. However, all three serve as popular elements of the Islamic faith contributing to tension and sometimes apprehension into the Islamic community. Women may not seem equal to their male counterparts, but they are regarded as equally important to the world; their roles will vary across the Islamic faith. Expressing your adoration for Allah was not limited to prayer, so long as you remained truthful to your one and only creator. In doing so, you must spread the benefits of the Islamic faith amongst your region and even slaves; never boasting what you have and mocking what others do not. Cultural encounters, conflict, and violence have shaped the spread and success of Islam. Whether a Muslim believes in the Quran, Hadith, or Sufi orders, the Islamic community has remained a distinctive society throughout the Afro-Eurasian region.

Justice for Lebanon, France, Japan, Mexico, Iraq

The last couple of days I have been in a weird mood...something rather depressing. What makes it all worse is that my mood cannot even compare to the realistic horror of people affected daily by terrorism.

If you have a Facebook, you may have noticed that most people are converting their profile pictures to have a watermark of the French flag. You may have also noticed this act being questioned. What does this prove? Is the watermark our only way of establishing solidarity? These questions have caused some sort of upset in my mind.

When you experience the loss of a loved one, do you receive sympathy cards? flowers? sentimental gifts? Both situations are on two different ends of the spectrum but showing support is all the same and never turned down. Not everyone can lend their hands physically to help those in countries thousands of miles away. Not everyone can jump the ocean to tangibly show support to terrorist victims. By using the watermark, we are showing our support the best way we know how. What you should be questioning is why only one terrorist attack that happened recently is being played by the media.

It is not the people of Facebook that I am upset with. I am upset with those who have the power, money, and authority to help victims, that are falling short. Governments and policy-holders try to portray every nation as not having enough to give to others. And though sometimes countries focus on foreign affairs more than their own, people are still people. We experience the same emotions and despair. If we started to give support without being asked or waiting for such events to occur, maybe, just maybe, our world could find that act of solidarity people are questioning.

My heart breaks for all victims of Lebanon, France, Japan, Mexico, Iraq, etc. We cannot be leaving these problems for the government to take care of. We cannot leave our trust in the United Nations for without us small people to help delegate and intervene, such establishments would not exist. We are the peacekeepers of the world. It is time to stop knocking one another down and bring each other up through support. Our world should not be turning into a trophic cascade.

I wrote this article about Darfur a few months back. It touches base on the astounding accounts of Darfurian violence. I wanted to share this with you so that you could see the levels of terrorism surrounding our world and not just in the countries I've listed above.

Please do what you can to help one another. We are all we've got.

Darfuri Rebel Genocide and the Need for Peace

In 1945, an intercontinental organization intended to execute foreign relations and policies was established; the United Nations. The duties of the organization is to secure peace, civil rights, and foreign relationships. Proper precautions and processes have proven the United Nations to be successful when it came to reducing international crisis. Despite their civic duty of providing security and peace, the United Nations has failed exponentially on various international dilemmas. In 1995, Bosnian Serb forces in Srebrenica conducted an ethnic cleansing that resulted in the murder of over seven-thousand boys and men. The United Nations had stationed their Dutch peacekeepers in Srebrenica, calling it a 'safe zone.' The Serb forces built their army around the town of Srebrenica and soon imposed on the civilians, causing mass destruction to their people and society. Men of the Serb forces obtained the United Nation peacekeeper uniforms and raped the women and children (Human Rights Watch, pg. 37). Instead of protecting the men, women, and children of Bosnia, the Dutch peacekeepers surrendered. This massacre is regarded as the worst in Europe since World War II—inspiring a cease-fire that ended the three year long genocide (Smith, par. 1). The act of withdrawing peacekeepers and surrendering to crisis is equally evident in the case of Darfur. What remains are not only the scars of the genocide, but that a cease-fire and peace agreement has yet to be reached—displacement, murder, and rape continue today. The duty to protect civilians has not been properly fulfilled by the United Nations and its United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID). To succeed, the steps to take include educating not only civilians; constructing schools, homes, and orphanages for the peoples of Darfur; and establishing a proficient job economy that does not marginalize civilians who have limited skills. These processes will not cease-fire immediately but they will remedy the harmful circumstances that continue to arise in the Darfur community. Exhausting all resources necessary to make daily life easier than the day before is what UNAMID needs to enforce. Surrendering troops and peacekeepers unfortunately provide effortless admission for the Darfuri rebel movements—Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)--to continue waging war against Arab militias. (“Genocide in Darfur” par. 1).

            President Omar al-Bashir was a Sudanese General during the beginning of the Darfuri rebel movements, in 1989. Regional tensions were irritated by the control of Sudan by Bashir. The tensions induced conflicts between African farmers and nomadic Arab tribes. SLA and JEM complained that sedentary people were not being protected by the Sudanese government. The rebel movements were then at war with Arab militias known as Janjaweed and Sudanese forces. Villages were destroyed, civilians were displaced, and many were murdered (“Genocide in Darfur” par. 2). This movement has killed over 400,000 people and displaced over 2.5 million. The Darfuri people believe that the Sudanese government are in connection with the Arab militia, and therefore murdering their own civilians; never addressing claims of connection or human rights crisis. In 2009, President Bashir was indicted by International Criminal Court (ICC) for managing crimes against humanity; rape, mass killing, and pillaging against civilians in Darfur. The Sudanese government has yet to surrender President Bashir, making the claims of connections with Arab militias even more suspicious than before (“Genocide in Darfur” par. 5).

            The United Nations established a congregation to provide aid in Darfur; United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID). Peacekeepers were stationed in Darfuri rescue camps to guide displaced families, provide medical treatment and food. However, the Sudanese government has severely restricted access for humanitarian workers, causing the integrity of our perception to be corrupted. Specifically, the government has restricted the peacekeeping mission of UNAMID by shutting down the human rights office in Khartoum. Limiting the access to provide aid to Darfuri people has caused the United Nations to withdraw their peacekeeping forces. Sudanese government continues to relay the message that areas of Sudan are stable, contributing to the withdraw of even more peacekeepers. Once the aid is removed mass brutality arises, however, there are no external witnesses this time. Another tactic to avoid scrutiny, the Sudanese government has set up refugee villages for displaced Darfuri to settle. Mass rape in these villages is evident as the Human Rights Watch has documented the incidents (Clooney, par. 6). The victims need a suitable structure that cannot be accessed by the rebels and government; living in makeshift tents outside does not constitute as protecting victims. The sexual abuse of civilians is not a military objective but rather a showcase of control and victimizing the entire Darfuri community. To the United Nations, the mass rape in refugee camps are evidence that conditions of genocide in Darfur continue. Assuming attackers retreat (lack ammunition or other resources), it may be easier for peacekeepers to then have knowledge on the attackers—engage them, find out who they are, and let them know there is a cost to their actions (Gettleman, par. 14). Surrendering to the Sudanese government by diminishing our peacekeeping mission has now left Darfuri peoples to survive on their own without a voice to speak for them, without a place to sleep, without medical treatment, and without food. The lack of resources to survive will ultimately create national genocide regardless of who is good or bad.

            The sole purpose for sending peacekeepers is to protect the victims of national devastation. The United Nations has disowned that oath by retreating its aid workers from Darfur. In addition to protection, missions to Darfur could consist of building schools and homes for children of neighboring tribes. Placing these children in a fostering community will cause a sense of unity and nationalism. They will have access to education as they are future Sudanese leaders who may then support peace without violence, and create democracy. This process will also develop skills that are needed to obtain jobs and to help the economy grow so that jobs do flourish. Stable structures and monuments will alleviate the saga of mass raping, and will provide suitable living conditions for victims exposed excessively to African weather. Living conditions that provide water, food, shade, clothing, and baths, will eventually diminish the high rates of deaths by illnesses contracted from outside. Tents and shags will never protect these victims from the wrath of mother nature. International dilemmas cause people to desire intercultural cooperation. People in need rely on help from anywhere and anyone. The United Nations has the skills, money, and resources to provide aid to many countries in need, especially Sudan. Abandoning the responsibilities that the United Nations is upheld to, shows globally that they may not be trustworthy. Victims are not looking for immediate relief as they are intelligent enough to know it is a process. What they are looking for are remedies to live another day without fear and violence. The United Nations can make that dream a reality if they do not abandon their civic duty because of apprehensions and fear. Are the attackers worse, or cowards who abandoned their mission?

Resources

Smith, R. Jeffrey. "Srebrenica Massacre." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Nov. 2014. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1697253/Srebrenica-massacre>.

"The Fall of Srebrenica." HRW. Human Rights Watch, 1 Oct. 1995. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/bosnia1095web.pdf>.

"United Human Rights Council." United Human Rights Council. Web. 14 Mar. 2015. <http://www.unitedhumanrights.org/genocide/genocide-in-sudan.htm>.

Gettleman, Jeffrey. "Peacekeepers Without a Peace to Keep." The New York Times. The New York Times, 13 Oct. 2007. Web. 14 Mar. 2015. <http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/14/weekinreview/14gettleman.html?_r=0>.